Hence, socioeconomic transformations that turn the nature of life from a source of threats into a source of opportunities nurture a generational shift in priorities from survival to emancipative values. Unique country-specific factors (measured by the country-fixed effects in Table 6) account for a substantial part of the variation in cultural orientations, depending on the dimension. To explore intergenerational value shift in our Hofstede-inspired multidimensional framework, we applied Ingleharts definition of generations using birth cohorts. Meanwhile, restraint indicates that society tends to suppress the gratification of needs and regulate them through social norms. There is a certain degree of inequality in all societies, notes Hofstede; however, there is relatively more equality in some societies than in others. Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Countries scoring low on the first dimension having more traditional-collectivist values believe in God and feel that respect is important in a job and that obedience is an important child quality. This depiction is a most serious misinterpretation. The remainder of this article is structured as follows. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. Those from collectivist cultures tend to emphasize relationships and loyalty more than those from individualistic cultures. Individuals with values typically found in societies that score high on this dimension (i.e., less restraint, more indulgence) tend to live in bigger cities, do not find a good income important in a job, embrace democracy, and find imagination an important child quality. Masculinity versus Femininity reflects an emphasis on caring for others, solidarity, and cooperation (Femininity), as opposed to achievement, success, and competition (Masculinity). Societies that score higher on the masculinity scale tend to value assertiveness, competition, and material success. This is especially relevant to the former Soviet Union and some Eastern European countries. The first dimension, which we label CollectivismIndividualism, is based on five items and available for 90 countries. This limits the number of items substantially. Although their work on national cultures is fundamentally related, they only met once1 and there has never been an attempt to combine their frameworks. Moreover, and more important in our context, the 20 items used to generate the two dimensions on the InglehartWelzel world map of cultures only generate two dimensions when one actively enforces the extraction of exactly two dimensions (Welzel, 2013). There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. The reason is simple: at the later point in time, the population is composed to a larger extent of the higher scoring younger cohorts on Individualism and Joy and to a lesser extent of the lower scoring older cohorts. As already shown in Figures 1 to to3,3, the mean score for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy has increased over the 1990-2010 period and the mean score for DistrustTrust has decreased in that period. He constructed his culture framework from data collected in attitudinal surveys conducted in subsidiaries of IBM in 72 countries between 1968 and 1973 (reduced to 40 countries after the criterion of at least 50 respondents was applied). Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The assertive pole has been called masculine and the modest, caring pole feminine. In the same spirit, we have tested whether exclusion of the question on state versus private ownership from the first dimension affects our findings. We have no reason to exclude these countries from our sample, but we agree with the reviewer that these countries score very high on a subset of the items included in our analysis. Generally speaking, would you say that this country is run by a few big interests looking out for themselves, or that it is run for the benefit of all the people? Our analysis leads to three conceptually and empirically independent dimensions, collapsing Hofstedes original model from six dimensions to three. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. The relationship between cultural characteristics and preference for active vs. What is the difference between masculine and feminine cultures? Figure 2 shows the results for DutyJoy and Figure 3 for DistrustTrust. Individualist cultures replace the individuals dependence on particular support groups, especially family and acquaintances, by a more anonymous form of dependence on impartial institutions and universal norms. After accounting for differences in level of economic development and generational effects, we find that countries can be grouped together in clusters based on geography, climate, and history, a result in line with Georgas and Berrys (1995) ecocultural model and associated taxonomy of nations. For example, if a company wants to sell its products in a country with a high collectivism score, it may need to design its packaging and advertising to appeal to groups rather than individuals. Second, the items that correlate with Uncertainty Avoidance versus Acceptance do not correlate significantly with the other dimensions. This refers to the title of a plenary session by Hofstede held at the Academy of International Business Annual Meeting, July 6, 2013 in Istanbul, Turkey. Former Soviet Union (N = 15; Nrespondents = 81,978) include Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine (only the score of Russia [32] is known for the first cohort). Our re-examination of three of Hofstedes dimensions should not be seen as an effort to legitimize his approach in general, nor are we suggesting that Hofstede is right and other cross-cultural frameworks are wrong. Since its inclusion as a standard module in the European Social Survey, the Schwartz Value Inventory has become the most widely recognized concept of values in psychology. Countries in italics are used in the first cohort (N = 15; Nrespondents = 108,064). Retrieved from, Hofstedes model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faitha failure of analysis, Dynamic diversity: Variety and variation within countries, Cultural differences in a globalizing world, A revision of Hofstedes model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries, Genetic polymorphisms predict national differences in life history strategy and time orientation, Hofstedes fifth dimension: New evidence from the World Values Survey, A replication of Hofstedes uncertainty avoidance dimension across nationally representative samples from Europe, Historical prevalence of infectious diseases in 230 geopolitical regions, Beyond Hofstede: Cultural frameworks for global marketing and management. roles. Economic progress and generational effects do not explain cultural change completely though. The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Gelfand, Erez, and Aycan (2007) provide an almost exhaustive overview of cross-cultural organizational behavior and psychology. Hofstedes cultural dimensions can also be used to predict how people from different cultures will interact with each other. Despite this shift toward Joy, young people in ex-communist countries are still more duty-oriented than young people in advanced postindustrial democracies. We find a significant relation between level of economic development and the CollectivismIndividualism dimension ( = 3.30; p < .01) and the DutyJoy dimension ( = 9.29; p < .001). This means that there is no supporting time-trend effect in Individualism and Joy, so that cohort replacement alone shifted the mean upward. Its alpha equals .77. In the remainder, we prefer to use the three item-based Distrust-Trust dimension to maximize country coverage. Former Soviet Satellites (N = 9; Nrespondents = 51,008) include Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. For DistrustTrust, we find the largest contribution of the country-fixed effects, a result in line with our earlier observation on the relative stability of this DistrustTrust dimension across generations. Inspired by Maslows (1954) hierarchy of human needs, the findings of Inglehart and his co-authors (Inglehart & Norris, 2003; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005) demonstrate a universal principle in the functioning of the human mind: the utility ladder of freedoms, as Welzel (2013) has coined it. After establishing that first order autocorrelation (AR1) is present, we control for AR1 by estimating a panel-fixed effects model where we correct our standard errors for any kind of serial autocorrelation and/or heteroscedasticity. Higher scores on the third dimension Distrust-Trust mean lower scores on Hofstedes Uncertainty Avoidance. Apart from this principled point, we see three more specific implications of our study. This study encompassed over 100,000 employees from 50 countries across three regions. The question as to whether nationals are privileged over immigrants when jobs are scarce is directly related to the definition of Power Distance as given by Globe. WITI is redefining the way women and men collaborate to drive innovation and business growth and is helping corporate partners create and foster gender inclusive cultures. The weaknesses in the conceptions of Hofstede and Inglehart are complementary, raising an unanswered question: Does the evolutionary logic of cultural change suggested by Inglehart and Welzel apply to a better validated set of cultural dimensions inspired by Hofstede? If one believes in Individualism in the sense that what people achieve should be a result of their merit, the idea that the authority of a few over the many is natural does not make sense. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. This dimension focuses on how extent to which a society stress According to the evolutionary theory of emancipation, national populations subjective life orientations vary on a continuum from a preventive closure mentality, in which people emphasize uniformity, discipline, hierarchy, and authority, toward a promotive openness mentality, in which they emphasize the opposite traits, namely, diversity, creativity, liberty, and autonomy. Its opposite pole, restraint, reflects a conviction that such gratification needs to be curbed and regulated by strict social norms. It shows the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis. Similarly, Tsui, Nifadkar, and Ou (2007) reviewed 93 cross-cultural articles published in 1996 to 2005 in 16 top management journals. We drop the item how important is service to others in the LTO dimension, because this question is only available for 39 countries. It is widely considered as the quintessential marker of a societys prevalent mentality and culture, and has evolved into a multidimensional and multi-level construct (see Earley & Gibson, 1998; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002; Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand, 1995; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998). The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine). Hofstedes cultural dimensions can be used to help explain why certain behaviors are more or less common in different cultures. By contrast, countries with a Short-Term Orientation are characterized by a here and now mentality that programs them to grab a benefit whenever one can. The score of the US on Masculinity is high at 62, and this can be seen in the typical American behavioral patterns. Outside of sociology, Hofstedes work is also applicable to fields such as cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. Here, we discuss the most stunning links with remote historical drivers. For DutyJoy and DistrustTrust, by contrast, the residuals are of a more country-specific nature, reflecting singularities in each countrys history that are not so easily generalizable across countries. Schedules are flexible, hard work is undertaken when necessary but not for its own sake, precision and punctuality do not come naturally, innovation is not seen as threatening. October 18, 2020 According to Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, there are four dimensions to cultures around the world. Figure 9 shows the scores on the DistrustTrust dimension for the same five birth cohorts. CollectivismIndividualism is, hence, the most significant cultural marker of historically divergent country trajectories. To develop our multidimensional framework and to put it into the dynamic perspective of cultural change, we pool nation-level culture measures across all waves of the WVS and European Values Studies (EVS). In Masculine countries people "live in order to work", managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the emphasis is on equity, competition . Accessibility We prefer to estimate our model yielding more conservative results. Depending on the cultural dimension, the number of countries is either 96 (for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy) or 95 (for DistrustTrust). Relatively weak control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint. Although there are many models of cultural dimensions, Hofstede's model has been selected for this study because of its relatively high popularity. Moreover, citizens lack confidence in civil service and feel that the law is usually against them. In more highly individualistic societies, the interests of individuals receive more emphasis than those of the group (e.g., the family, the company, etc.). This link is vital for human livability in keeping our goals in touch with reality. Are levels of democracy influenced by mass attitudes? The explained variance of the three factors is high, that is, 27% for Factor 1, 26% for Factor 2, and 19% for Factor 3. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Approximately 50% of the variation in CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy is explained by GDP per capita and cohort-fixed effects. The U.S. falls somewhere in between. Ingleharts dynamic concept of culture, by contrast, prevails in sociology and political science. We would note that we have also used the two alternative combinations of items in the construction of our CollectivismIndividualism dimensions as dependent variables. Geert Hofstede shed light on how cultural differences are still significant today in a world that is becoming more and more diverse. That is to say; this dimension is a measure of societal impulse and desire control. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. The cohort dummies are significant in all three models. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. Returning to Hofstede's cultural information dimensions model concerned with masculinity, in which the nation of China scored a sixty-six in comparison to the world average of 49.53. Finally, we correlate the country scores on the Individualism dimension with a set of additional items from WVS-EVS. masculine It has to do with whether peoples self-image is defined in terms of I or We. dont. Masculinity vs. femininity refers to a dimension that describes the extent to which strong distinctions exist between men's and women's roles in society. Note: The sample consists of nine countries (Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States). In individualistic cultures, people choose their affiliations voluntarily; in collectivistic cultures, they are imposed on them: people cannot escape obligations to their lineagewhat Banfield (1958) once called amoral familism. Likewise, the difference between Individualism and Collectivism is not one of solidarity as such but one of the type of solidarity that prevails. These questions capture the notion of rule and order orientation and the importance of well-functioning political and legal institutions. The three-factor solution suggests that the selected WVS-EVS items can be used to capture Individualism and Power Distance (what we call Dimension 1), Long-Term Orientation/IVR (what we call Dimension 2), and Uncertainty Avoidance (what we call Dimension 3). (2015). Correlation and Regression Analyses of Country-Specific Effect Scores (Unbalanced). Both men and women are expected to be nurturing and focused on people and quality of life. Hofstede's model of culture is a framework for understanding the differences between cultures. As Figure 7 shows, the young score higher on the CollectivismIndividualism dimension than the old in advanced postindustrial democracies and ex-communist countries. This approach relates cultural distance to a variety of firm-level outcomes (e.g., host country location choice of multinational firms) and is very popular in international management (Beugelsdijk et al., 2018). 8.We would note that Hofstede himself has been quoted for saying that If I would do it again, I would use the WVS, clearly suggesting his generally favorable approach toward the WVS. Individualistic culture. This becomes evident from the results of a factor analysis on Hofstedes six dimensions as shown in Table 1. The evolutionary logic in the works of Inglehart and Welzel predicts a generational shift from orientations dominant under pressing existential threats (i.e., survival orientations) toward orientations dominant under abundant existential opportunities (i.e., emancipative orientations)to the extent to which socioeconomic development indeed changed objective living conditions that way. The shift from industrial to postindustrial society brings about fundamental changes in peoples daily experiences, which are reflected in changing worldviews (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). Masculinity vs. feminism could help explain why some cultures are more competitive than others. One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small children are socialized. Although there is a certain degree of inequality in all societies, Hofstede notes that there is relatively more equality in some societies than in others. If we explore the culture of South Africa through the lens of the 6-D Model, we can get a good overview of the deep driving factors of its culture relative to other world cultures. Hofstede has since incorporated Confucian dynamism into his own theory as long-term vs. short-term orientation. Live to make parents proud (high to low). Second, cultural frameworks like ours have been used to develop a composite measure of cultural distance collapsing all cultural dimensions into a single Euclidean distance index (Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Kogut & Singh, 1988). Japan has been a paternalistic society and the family name and asset was inherited from father to the eldest son. Country scores for the fifth and sixth dimension, Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation (LTO) and Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR), have been added later. We apply a variety of psychometric techniques commonly used in cross-cultural psychology and comparative sociology. The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? The organization delivers leading edge programs and platforms for individuals and companies -- designed to empower professionals, boost competitiveness and cultivate partnerships, globally. (2002). What is masculinity/femininity? Results are summarized in Table 5. What all these studies have in common is that they highlight the significant impact Hofstedes framework has had on various fields, specifically cross-cultural management, international business, comparative management, and cross-cultural psychology (Beugelsdijk et al., 2018; Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Sndergaard, 1994). According to Globe, high Power Distance is associated with a society that is differentiated into class, and a society in which resources are available to only a few. The third item measures the degree of social trust. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries. A correlation of practically similar strength (r = .85), which covers 22 countries more (N = 91), exists with a purely geographic variable, labeled the Cool Water (CW) Index by Welzel (2013, 2014). To begin with CollectivismIndividualism, country specificities in this dimension correlate at an exceptional strength (r = .86) with how early female fertilities started to decline in a country (N = 69). Hofstede (2001) relates his Individualism dimension to autonomy and self-orientation, the right to a private life, weak family ties, less conformity behavior, individual incentives, and market capitalism and competition, and Power Distance to parents teaching children obedience, and the existence of hierarchy and privileges in society (Hofstede, 2001). In addition, we calculate reliability scores, and test if the reliability of the dimension can be further increased by leaving out specific items. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance. Hofstede provided preliminary evidence to claim that his 1968 culture data are enduring and persistent (Hofstede, 1980, chapter 8), concluding that national cultures are extremely stable over time (Hofstede, 2001, pp. Using the four strongest correlates with sufficient country coverage to predict country specificities in CollectivismIndividualism, we explain 78% of the variation (see Table 7). Number of countries is mentioned between parentheses. Superiors and subordinates are unlikely to see each other as equals in the workplace, and employees assume that higher-ups will make decisions without asking them for input. This Masculinity and Femininity dimension of culture is often considered as the Marketing dimension. Hofstede's first large study included data from over 70 countries. Cultural change is substantial. The youngest generation of ex-communist countries (i.e., people born between 1980 and 1999) has values that are slightly less individualistic than the generation before. One would note that this importance of rule and order also returns in the questions used by Globe when measuring Uncertainty Avoidance (e.g., I believe that society should have rules or laws to cover situations). The final selection criterion is that the correlation between a specific WVS-EVS items country score and country scores of any of the four original dimensions is |.5| or higher. So these two cultures share, in terms of masculinity, similar values. The slopes are upward and the lines move parallel. (2010) to calculate country scores on the two additional dimensions of IVR and LTO. Hofstede G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. (2010). While Hofstede is known for identifying several dimensions of cross-cultural variation, Ingleharts key contribution consists in a dynamic theory of cultural change. Higher scores on the first dimension of CollectivismIndividualism imply higher scores on Hofstedes Individualism (and lower on Power Distance). First, countries tend to shift north of the 45 line for the CollectivismIndividualism dimension and especially for the DutyJoy dimension, while countries tend to shift south of the 45 line for the DistrustTrust dimension. Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? However, Hofstede (1991) changed the name of this dimension using the more general label of Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Short-term orientation in a society, in contrast, indicates a focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future. BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester. Moreover, according to Rosenhauer (2007), the framework of Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions is based only in five dimensions and more important dimensions . According to Hofstede, Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.. We find that the dimensions correlate high with the original Hofstede dimensions, and low with one another (see Table A5 in the online appendix). Triandis, H. C. (1989). Later, researchers added restraint vs. indulgence to this list. For reasons explained in the main text, we drop Items 9 and 12 from the analysis. Without socialization we do not become human. Simply Scholar Ltd. 20-22 Wenlock Road, London N1 7GU, 2023 Simply Scholar, Ltd. All rights reserved, Correlations with other countrys differences. Moreover, as people in postindustrial societies are used to handle complex situations, to deal with abstract constructs and to cope with social diversity, their moral reasoning capacity and empathy expand (Flynn, 2012; Pinker, 2011). The authors thank Costas Katsikeas, Neil Morgan, Robbert Maseland, Loek Halman, the reviewers, and the editor for their useful suggestions and comments. In contrast, Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are more fluid. Societies with long-term orientations show to focus on the future in a way that delays short-term success in favor of success in the long term. Using the Trust label for this dimension resonates well with the vast literature on trust in economics (e.g., Zak & Knack, 2001), political science (e.g., Fukuyama, 1995; Putnam, 1993, 2000), and sociology (e.g., Delhey & Newton, 2005). An official website of the United States government. Individualism vs. collectivism anchor opposite ends of a continuum that describes how people define themselves and their relationships with others. A leading authority of women in technology and business, WITI has been advocating and recognizing women's contributions in the industry for more than 30 years. Power Distance Index | Individualism | Masculinity | Uncertainty Avoidance Index | Long-Term Orientation, How cross cultural differences caused Korean Airlines problems, Iphone app Geert Hofstedes 5 cultural dimensions, Learning to Understand China : Personal experience. Additionally, as Orr and Hauser (2008) point out, Hofstedes dimensions have been found to be correlated with actual behavior in cross-cultural studies, suggesting that it does hold some validity. The DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE: The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The three dimensions we find comprise CollectivismIndividualism, DutyJoy, and DistrustTrust. The second dimension, labeled Duty-Joy, is available for 106 countries and is based on five items. Masculinity versus Femininity reflects an emphasis on caring . Online readings in psychology and culture, 2 (1), 2307-0919. Climato-economic origins of variation in ingroup favoritism, Avoiding uncertainty in Hofstede and GLOBE. Marketing Management Journal, 18 (2), 1-19. In individualistic cultures, universal institutions of the welfare state (like universal health care) create a generalized form of solidarity that frees people from family obligations. Long-Term Orientation Restraint vs. Cultural change CollectivismIndividualism. For these purposes, masculinity refers to traits associated with assertiveness and femininity refers to traits associated with nurture. We have data on all three dimensions for 68 countries for four cohorts, and limited data for the first cohort for 21 countries.