The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite[329] Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. Together with the archaeological and linguistic evidence, the genetic data tipped the scales heavily in favor of the kurgan hypothesis. Various steppe-cultures show strong similarities with the Yamna-horizon at the Pontic steppe, while the time-range of several Asian cultures also coincides with the proposed trajectory and time-range of the Indo-European migrations. [72], In the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia. Mats Roslund. The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. "[30] According to Piazza and Cavalli-Sforza (2006), the Yamna-culture may have been derived from Middle Eastern Neolithic farmers who migrated to the Pontic steppe and developed pastoral nomadism. O.K., now, who ordered the glass half empty, and who ordered the glass half full?, Its not actually that much after taxes.. [166], According to Anthony, "the spread of the Yamnaya horizon was the material expression of the spread of late Proto-Indo-European across the Pontic-Caspian steppes. [3] The area east of the Carpathian mountains formed a contact zone between the expanding Yamnaya culture and the northern European farmer cultures. Your Pun-Divided Attention: How the Brain Processes Wordplay. Lamberg-Karlovsky, "Archaeology and Language: The Indo-Iranians", Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history, Swarajya Magazine, 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers, alternative Proto-Indo-European original homelands, Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang, Neolithic populations in western Europe declined, hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, Mitanni Indo-Aryan linguistic influences, proposals for the origins of the Indo-European languages, New Branch Added to European Family Tree. [web 1][196] BCE) probably played an essential role in the origin and spread of the Indo-European languages in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages. [166][167] According to Anthony, the Yamnaya culture originated in the Don-Volga area at ca. The Thracian language was the Indo-European language spoken in Southeast Europe by the Thracians, the northern neighbors of the Greeks. [144] It is believed that the Tarim mummies, dated from 1800 BCE, represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture in the Tarim Basin in the early 2nd millennium BCE;[39] however, a 2021 genetic study demonstrated the Tarim Mummies are remains of locals descending from Ancient North Eurasians and Northeast Asians, and instead suggested that "Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants" -i.e. It is generally proposed that a proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age (3,3003,000 BCE)[266] when the latter, around 1500 BCE, conquered the indigenous peoples. The Balkan languages (Thracian, Dacian, Illyrian) may have developed among the early Indo-European populations of southeastern Europe. Anthropologists and geneticists are two groups speaking different languages and getting to know each other. Research into human origins and the differences between populations is always vulnerable to misuse. [306][307] The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant and a migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones. Since the study was published, one of the most determined investigators of the mystery has been a recently retired archeologist named Stuart Fiedel, whose main research focus is the migration of Paleo-Americans into the New World from Asia. The existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. The dead, it appeared, were most likely pilgrims. [287] As a result of a modern diaspora, there are also Albanian speakers elsewhere in those countries and in other parts of the world, including Scandinavia, Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Hungary, United Kingdom, Turkey, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, Singapore, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. Relationships to other language families, including the Uralic languages, have been proposed but remain controversial. In Iberia during this time, the local type of Y chromosome was replaced by an entirely different type. and Harvard, the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, and the Anthropological Survey of India, where many of the Roopkund bones reside. This isnt just a story about bones, he said. 3200 B.C. [347][348] The reign of the Kassites laid the essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. The research on the Indo-Aryan migrations began with the study of the Rig Veda in the mid-19th century by Max Muller, and gradually evolved from a theory of a large scale invasion of a racially and technologically superior people to being a slow diffusion of small numbers of nomadic people that had a disproportionate societal impact on a large urban population. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language . This page was last edited on 13 April 2023, at 06:30. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East. The lands of the Anatolian peoples were successively invaded by a number of peoples and empires at high frequency: the Phrygians, Bithynians, the Medes, the Persians, the Greeks, the Galatian Celts, Romans and the Oghuz Turks. [19], Another theory which has drawn considerable, and renewed, attention is the Armenian plateau hypothesis of Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, who have argued that the Urheimat was south of the Caucasus, specifically, "within eastern Anatolia, the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia" in the fifth to fourth millennia BCE. He believes linguistic and archaeological evidence, including weapons found in graves, suggests the language's progenitors had a warrior culture. According to this model, the Kurgan culture gradually expanded to the entire PonticCaspian steppe, Kurgan IV being identified with the Yamnaya culture of around 3000BC. [184] The Greek, Armenian and Indo-Iranian languages are also related, which suggests "a chain of central Indo-European dialects stretching from the Balkans across the Black sea to the east Caspian". [174] Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle Dniepr (present-day Ukraine)[5] at c.2800 BCE, spreading north from there. The Thuggees would make off with kids, Fiedel said. Its also a story about human beings and religious devotion., Many anthropologists and archeologists are uneasy about the incursion of genomics into their domain and suspicious of its brash certainties. Albanian (shqip [cip] or gjuha shqipe [uha cip], meaning Albanian language) is an Indo-European language spoken by approximately 7.4million people, primarily in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Greece, but also in other areas of the Balkans in which there is an Albanian population, including Montenegro and Serbia (Presevo Valley). [271], The Dacians spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4thcentury BCE. [342] In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu. Archaeological research has unearthed a broad range of historical cultures that can be related to the spread of the Indo-European languages. [134] Considering a steppe origin for archaic PIE, together with the Tocharians the Anatolians constituted the first known dispersal of Indo-European out of the Eurasian steppe. [2] The Indo-Aryans split-off around 18001600 BCE from the Iranians,[46] where-after they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians,[308] who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone[309] and "chased [the Indo-Aryans] to the extremities of Central Eurasia". We can be reasonably certain that their divergence post-dated the invention of wheeled vehicles, for which we can construct five separate roots (two for wheels, one for travel by wheeled vehicle, one for . [119] The Dniepr-Donets culture kept cattle not only for ritual sacrifices, but also for their daily diet. [342], The Kassite language was not Indo-European. Researchers in New Zealand led by Dr. Quentin Atkinson of the University of Auckland have now applied research techniques used to trace virus epidemics to the study of . Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they are often identified with the Tkharoi () and Asioi of Classical sources. In the Iberian study, the predominant Y chromosome seems to have originated with a group called the Yamnaya, who arose about five thousand years ago, in the steppes north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Genetic research suggests that the Kalash have a Western European origin, and one disputed study found Greek heritage. There isnt any gold on the skeletons, no rings, necklaces, or anklets on the victims. [135] It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan,[135] and had an elaborate trade-network reachings as far as the Indus civilisation, the Iranian plateau, and the Persian Gulf. Then, at fifteen thousand feet, it goes over a pass and up a series of switchbacks through scree to Roopkund. The team members of the Roopkund study planned a variety of tests for the bones. [20] The Kurgan archaeological culture or cultural horizon comprises the various cultures of the PonticCaspian steppe in the Copper Age to Early Bronze Age (5th to 3rd millennia BC), identified by similar artifacts and structures, but subject to inevitable imprecision and uncertainty. 2023 Cond Nast. The Italic languages are a subfamily of the Indo-European language family originally spoken by Italic peoples. [30] The first IE-speakers may have reached Anatolia "by way of commercial contacts and small-scale movement during the Bronze Age. Cultures that Gimbutas considered as part of the "Kurgan culture": Gimbutas's original suggestion identifies four successive stages of the Kurgan culture: In other publications[21] she proposes three successive "waves" of expansion: The Kurgan hypothesis describes the initial spread of Proto-Indo-European during the 5th and 4th millennia BC. [149] By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the dominant people as far east as the Altai Mountains southward to the northern outlets of the Tibetan Plateau were anthropologically Caucasian, with the northern part speaking Iranian Scythian languages and the southern parts Tocharian languages, having Mongoloid populations as their northeastern neighbors. It extends along the area from the Taman Peninsula at the Kerch Strait to near the modern border of Dagestan and southwards to the Kura River. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, later spawning the Jie people who dominated the Later Zhao until their complete extermination by Ran Min in the WeiJie war. The following suggestions have been made from 2015 to 2019: Soviet and post-Soviet Russian archaeologists have proposed an East Caspian influence, via the eastern Caspian areas, on the formation of the Don-Volga cultures. [vague], The Slavs are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group living in Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia, who speak the Indo-European Slavic languages, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. Nevertheless, these days the Anatolian hypothesis is generally rejected, since it is incompatible with the growing data on the genetic history of the Yamnaya-people. The bearers of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium expanded throughout the PonticCaspian steppe and into Eastern Europe. PIE was the first proposed proto-language to be widely accepted by linguists. Early European Neolithic languages were supplanted with the arrival of Indo-Europeans, but according to Iversen and Kroonen left their trace in a layer of mostly agricultural vocabulary in the Indo-European languages of Europe. [156], The political history of the Indo-Europeans of Inner Asia from the 2nd century B.C. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. [34][82][21][91] While the consensus is that early and late PIE languages originated on the Pontic steppes, the location of the origin of archaic PIE has become the focus of renewed attention, due to the question where the CHG-component came from, and if they were the carriers of archaic PIE. The second-oldest branch language group, Tocharian, was spoken in the Tarim Basin (now western China), after splitting from early PIE spoken on the eastern Pontic steppe. All hypotheses assume a significant period (at least 15002000 years) between the time of the Proto-Indo-European language and the earliest attested texts, at Kltepe, c.19th century BCE. However, Eric P. Hamp suggests that Phrygian was related to Italo-Celtic in a hypothetical "Northwest Indo-European" group. [32][33][web 7][34][35][36], Migrations eastward from the Repin culture founded the Afanasevo culture[1][37] which developed into the Tocharians. [8][91][92][93][34][35][36][94][note 11], Anthony (2019, 2020) criticizes the Southern/Caucasian origin proposals of Reich and Kristiansen, and rejects the possibility that the Bronze Age Maykop people of the Caucasus were a southern source of language and genetics of Indo-European. Still, some anthropologists, social scientists, and even geneticists are deeply uncomfortable with any research that explores the hereditary differences among populations. [317] Allentoft et al. Archaeology traces the spread of artifacts, habitations, and burial sites presumed to be created by speakers of Proto-Indo-European in several stages: from the hypothesized locations of the Proto-Indo-European homeland, into their later locations of Western Europe, Central, South and Eastern Asia. [267] The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the 3rd millennium BCE were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes. Some historians question whether the Thuggees even existed. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The most widely accepted theory suggests that Latins and other proto-Italic tribes first entered in Italy with the late Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture (12th10th cent. [312] Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium BCE. Fiedel contends that the mitochondrial DNA lineages and the Y-chromosomal DNA lineages of the Roopkund B group are rare or absent in the population of the Greek islands, but are relatively common in Armenians and other peoples of the Caucasus. "[32] Nevertheless, the Anatolian hypothesis is incompatible with the linguistic evidence.[33]. Since the early 1980s[74] the mainstream consensus among Indo-Europeanists favors Marija Gimbutas' "Kurgan hypothesis",[75][76][13][19] c.q. In his standard work[12] about PIE and to a greater extent in a later abbreviated version,[13] Karl Brugmann took the view that the urheimat could not be identified exactly by the scholarship of his time, but he tended toward Schrader's view. [82] According to Anthony, hunting-fishing camps from the lower Volga, dated 62004500 BCE, could be the remains of people who contributed the CHG-component, similar to the Hotu cave, migrating from northwestern Iran or Azerbaijan via the western Caspian coast. After he presented material from the book as an Op-Ed in the Times, sixty-seven anthropologists, social scientists, and others signed an open letter on BuzzFeed, titled How Not to Talk About Race and Genetics. The scholars complained that Reichs skillfulness with ancient and contemporary DNA should not be confused with a mastery of the cultural, political, and biological meanings of human groups, and that Reich critically misunderstands and misrepresents concerns regarding the use of such loaded terms as race and population., Reichs lab now has an ethics-and-outreach officer, Jakob Sedig, whose job is to work with some of the cultural groups being studied, to understand and respond to their sensitivities. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu mglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen", "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", "Archaeology and Language: Why Archaeologists Care About the Indo-European Problem", "Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard", "The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis", "An Archaeological Scenario for the 'Coming of the Greeks' ca. Her role was to analyze the Roopkund DNA, wrangle the worldwide team, assemble the results, and write the resulting paper as its lead author. [83] The main strength of the farming hypothesis lies in its linking of the spread of Indo-European languages with an archaeologically known event (the spread of farming) that is often assumed as involving significant population shifts. [34] He points out: The Kurgan culture was so broadly defined that almost any culture with burial mounds, or even (like the Baden culture) without them could be included. In other words, most of the Roopkund dead probably perished as Sax almost did, when he was an undergraduatestaggering around in a sudden blizzard and looking for their companions. The term is derived from kurgan (), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound. [249] As an alternative to the model of a binary split into Slavic and Baltic, some linguists suggest that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic and Slavic. When I visited, a technician was working on a nubbin of bone from an ancient Roman who lived in Belgium. (2021), Hittite was the earliest language to split off from the rest, around 41393450 BC, followed by Tocharian around 37272262 BC. The work has produced startling insights into who we are as a species, where we have come from, and what we have done to one another. Kortlandt (2010) refers to Kortlandt, Frederik. [319], Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture. ", Demkina et al. Bader (ed.). [77][78][13][19][note 7], Marija Gimbutas formulated her Kurgan hypothesis in the 1950s, grouping together a number of related cultures at the Pontic steppes. The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (c.3200[196] or 2,900[web 1]2450 or 2350 cal. Nanda Devi was furious at the display of earthly pleasures, and she shoved the dancing girls down into the underworld. They were followed by the Scythians, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west, to the easternmost fringes of Central Asia in the east, including the Indo-Scythian Kingdom in India. [6][7] David Anthony states that "Childe (1953:133-38) and Gimbutas (1963) speculated that migrants from the steppe Yamnaya horizon (33002600 BCE) might have been the creators of the Corded Ware culture and carried IE languages into Europe from the steppes. The name comes from the Russian term of Turkish origin, "kurgan", which means tumuli characteristics of these peoples and mark their expansion in Europe. Perhaps this was hallowed ground, an open-air cemetery, or a place where victims of an epidemic were dumped to prevent contagion. [1] The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamnaya horizon. [34], He does not include the Maykop culture among those that he considers to be Indo-European-speaking and presumes instead that they spoke a Caucasian language.[35]. The Kushan empire stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China. The people of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium BC had expanded throughout the PonticCaspian steppe and into Eastern Europe. To revisit this article, select My Account, thenView saved stories, To revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories. [40] Migrations southward may have founded the Maykop culture,[41] but the Maykop origins could also have been in the Caucasus. A jumble of bones from a poorly curated storage area would not have the consistency of age, type, diet, and genetics displayed by the Roopkund B remains. [299] The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, by the Armenian language, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant.[300]. Denying the possibility of substantial differences is not for us to do, given the scientific reality we live in., In 2018, Reich published a book, Who We Are and How We Got Here, about how genetic science is revolutionizing our understanding of our species. Could Roopkund B have come from an unsampled population in India descended from Greeks or a related group? These people were called "Tocharian" by late 19th-century scholars who identified them with the Tkharoi described by ancient Greek sources as inhabiting Bactria. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Panonia in the west.[265]. John Boardman, I.E.S. 58005700 BCE, descendants from the first European farmers. [135] Although those archaic PIE-speakers had wagons, they probably reached Anatolia before Indo-Europeans had learned to use chariots for war. [75] According to Cunliffe, most of the expansion was clearly intrusive. It is not a weapon injury, the researchers noted, but came from a blow from a blunt and round heavy object. This stretch of the Himalayas is notorious for hailstorms, which destroy crops and damage property. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. (She has since taken a job as a postdoctoral researcher at the genomics firm 23andMe.) They then expanded into northern South Asia, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire. [137] According to Parpola, the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite, is related to later migrations of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture into the Danube Valley at c.2800 BCE,[33][4] which is in line with the "customary" assumption that the Anatolian Indo-European language was introduced into Anatolia somewhere in the third millennium BCE. So as it turns out, prehistoric North Pontic Steppe populations buried in - Italic Roots ); a number of extinct languages of the Italian Peninsula, including Umbrian, Oscan, Faliscan, South Picene; and Latin itself. The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture[314] or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,[315] is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dated to the period 21001800 BCE. The lab doesnt sequence the entire DNA molecule, much of which is repetitious and uninformative, but maps about a million key locations. Anthony considers it likely that the Maykop spoke a Northern Caucasian language not ancestral to Indo-European. "Le Phrygien". [web 25] The Kassites were polytheistic, and the name of some 30 gods are known. [278] The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to the Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, part of Serbia and most of Albania, between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of the Aoos river in the south. [web 6] [needs update]. [web 16], According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the Urheimat ('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the Jastorf culture,[217][218][219][note 22] situated in Denmark and northern Germany. Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, a collection of Corded Ware settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist. Getting enough to sequence requires complex processes, one of which involves placing samples in a machine that produces a polymerase chain reaction, copying the fragments up to a billion times. [web 27] Genetic relations of the Kassite language are unclear, although it is generally agreed that it was not Semitic; relation with Elamite is doubtful. [1] It is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group. Of all places in the world, India is one of the places most heavily sampled in terms of human diversity, Reich told me. (2015) envision a migration of both males and females from the Yamnaya horizon through western Ukraine and Poland into Germany. [28] According to Anthony, the Anatolian branch,[29][30] to which the Hittites belong,[31] probably arrived in Anatolia from the Danube valley. Centuries-old communities speaking Albanian-based dialects can be found scattered in Greece, southern Italy,[286] Sicily, and Ukraine. However, this view is not shared by linguists, as proto-languages generally occupy small geographical areas over a very limited time span, and are generally spoken by close-knit communities such as a single small tribe.[85]. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were likely to have lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (20001800 BCE); and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the, Haak et al. A careful excavation, she believes, might solve the mystery, especially if it is able to plumb the lake itself. Harney and Reich began exploring the ancestry of the Roopkund B group, comparing the genomes with hundreds of present-day populations across Europe, Asia, and Africa. We need to be able to talk about these differences clearly, whatever they may be. The domestication of the horse created a steppe bridge into India and Iran on the one side and Europe on the other side, Anthony says. Almost 3billion native speakers use Indo-European languages,[web 5] making them by far the largest recognised language family. 2016), Caucasus and Swiss hunter-gatherer genomes, "European languages linked to migration from the east. The Indo-Aryans split off around 18001600 BCE from the Iranians,[46] whereafter Indo-Aryan groups moved to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, c.1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). According to Museyibli, "the Leylatepe Culture tribes migrated to the north in the mid-fourth millennium and played an important part in the rise of the Maikop Culture of the North Caucasus. [web 29], It is not listed by Mallory among the proposals for the origins of the Indo-European languages that are widely discussed and considered credible within academia. His armies traversed the Indus plains and reached as far as the Beas River before turning back. [39][341] Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the Xiongnu, also former vassals of the Yuezhi. The villages are on the route of a pilgrimage to honor Nanda Devi, a manifestation of Parvati, a supreme goddess in Hinduism.
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